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Cognates are words in English and the learner's language that are similar and have similar meaning.

Prior knowledge is the knowledge the learner already has before they meet new information.

A cloze is a practice exercise where learners have to replace words missing from a text.

Goals are the targets that learners and teachers have in language learning.

Pre-teaching is the teaching of the language learners need before an activity.

Self-assessment is where learners assess their language proficiency, rather than a teacher doing it. 

Formal assessment uses formal tests or structured continuous assessment to evaluate a learner's level of language.